With the Allied center demolished, the French swept through both enemy flanks and sent the Allies fleeing chaotically, capturing thousands of prisoners in the process. [198], Napoleon was moved to Longwood House on Saint Helena in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. [291] Napoleon synthesized the best academic elements from the Ancien Régime, The Enlightenment, and the Revolution, with the aim of establishing a stable, well-educated and prosperous society. [290], Napoleon's educational reforms laid the foundation of a modern system of education in France and throughout much of Europe. This boy would make an excellent sailor". [270], Napoleon's set of civil laws, the Code Civil—now often known as the Napoleonic Code—was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, the Second Consul. Lowe cut Napoleon's expenditure, ruled that no gifts were allowed if they mentioned his imperial status, and made his supporters sign a guarantee they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely. "[194] The soldiers quickly responded with, "Vive L'Empereur!" This was in contrast to the complex uniforms with many decorations of his marshals and those around him. [157] By the second day, reinforcements had boosted French numbers up to 70,000. In a letter to Marshal Soult detailing the plan for the campaign, Napoleon described the essential features of Napoleonic warfare and introduced the phrase le bataillon-carré ("square battalion"). The Senate became a legislative chamber to rank alongside, and with the same prerogatives, as the Legislative Body. Martin van Creveld described him as "the most competent human being who ever lived". [173], The Russians eventually offered battle outside Moscow on 7 September: the Battle of Borodino resulted in approximately 44,000 Russian and 35,000 French dead, wounded or captured, and may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history up to that point in time. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support. On the advice of Talleyrand, Napoleon ordered the kidnapping of the Duke of Enghien, violating the sovereignty of Baden. [319], Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon became not a world historical figure but an intimate one, fashioned by individuals' needs and consumed as popular entertainment. The data origin from a survey refering to the plebiscite in Chile 1988. The French scored a convincing win in the resulting Battle of Eckmühl, forcing Charles to withdraw his forces over the Danube and into Bohemia. Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions during the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon swung his forces to the southeast and the Grande Armée performed an elaborate wheeling movement that outflanked the Austrian positions. But ... what will live forever, is my Civil Code". He decided to focus his attention on the Kingdom of Portugal, which consistently violated his trade prohibitions. [72] His army had succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings. Although the French managed to capture Toussaint Louverture, the expedition failed when high rates of disease crippled the French army, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines won a string of victories, first against Leclerc, and when he died from yellow fever, then against Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau, whom Napoleon sent to relieve Leclerc with another 20,000 men. In his later years he gained quite a bit of weight and had a complexion considered pale or sallow, something contemporaries took note of. Corrections? On the first day, Charles disposed of 110,000 soldiers against only 31,000 commanded by Napoleon. [76] Back in Egypt on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir. The selling price in the Louisiana Purchase was less than three cents per acre, a total of $15 million. [c][20] He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. Plebiscite definition is - a vote by which the people of an entire country or district express an opinion for or against a proposal especially on a choice of government or ruler. Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son: Charles Léon (1806–1881) by Eléonore Denuelle de La Plaigne. The Allies now had new, harsher terms that included the retreat of France to its 1791 boundaries, which meant the loss of Belgium. General Melas had a numerical advantage, fielding about 30,000 Austrian soldiers while Napoleon commanded 24,000 French troops. He died on 5 May 1821, after confession, Extreme Unction and Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali. On 20 March 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a baby boy, whom Napoleon made heir apparent and bestowed the title of King of Rome. [72] Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days. In a plebiscite, voters are asked not to choose between alternate regimes or proposals but to confirm or reject the legitimacy of a certain form of government or course of action. A forced march from Vienna by Marshal Davout and his III Corps plugged the gap left by Napoleon just in time. [e][213] In his will, he had asked to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but the British governor said he should be buried on Saint Helena, in the Valley of the Willows.[210]. They also took the precaution of sending a garrison of soldiers to uninhabited Ascension Island, which lay between St. Helena and Europe. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). III, book 3.VII", https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0253.xml, "May 10th 1802, "The last cry of innocence and despair, "The British Expeditionary Force to Walcheren: 1809", "Why Napoleon Probably Should Have Just Stayed in Exile the First Time", "The Singular Case of Napoleon's Wallpaper", Inside Longwood – Barry O'Meara's clandestine letters, "Napoleon and the Pope: From the Concordat to the Excommunication", "This Day in Jewish History / The Sanhedrin of Paris Convenes at the Behest of Napoleon", "Most Popular Napoleon Bonaparte Movies and TV Shows", "Greatest cartooning coup of all time: The Brit who convinced everyone Napoleon was short", "The Myth of Napoleon's Height: How a Single Image Can Change History", "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered", "Outlines of the evolution of weights and measures and the metric system", "Les poids et mesures sous l'Ancien Régime", "Call for Papers: International Napoleonic Society, Fourth International Napoleonic Congress", "A New Napoleonic Campaign for Montereau". He arrived at Donauwörth on the 17th to find the Grande Armée in a dangerous position, with its two wings separated by 120 km (75 mi) and joined together by a thin cordon of Bavarian troops. [234] The Pope was not released until 1814, when the Coalition invaded France. [53], Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy. The assault on the position led to the capture of the city, but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh. [209], In February 1821, Napoleon's health began to deteriorate rapidly, and he reconciled with the Catholic Church. For example, in 1935, the Saar chose to remain part of Germany rather than become part of France. The two then marched together toward Paris with a growing army. Her great-aunt had been executed in France, while Napoleon had fought numerous campaigns against Austria all throughout his military career. At the Congress of Erfurt in October 1808, Napoleon hoped to keep Russia on his side during the upcoming struggle in Spain and during any potential conflict against Austria. [248], In terms of influence on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. charge that he was not troubled when faced with the prospect of war and death for thousands, turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe and ignored treaties and conventions alike. British ships were blocking every port. [122] By 1805, the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350,000 men,[122] who were well equipped, well trained, and led by competent officers. How to use plebiscite in a sentence. [143], Alexander faced pressure from his brother, Duke Constantine, to make peace with Napoleon. The plebiscite of 1800 gives Napoleon the mandate to play a role for which he is well suited both in character and in terms of his 18th-century education - that of the enlightened despot. "[257], A personal friend of Napoleon's said that when he first met him in Brienne-le-Château as a young man, Napoleon was only notable "for the dark color of his complexion, for his piercing and scrutinising glance, and for the style of his conversation"; he also said that Napoleon was personally a serious and somber man: "his conversation bore the appearance of ill-humor, and he was certainly not very amiable. [31], The brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on the French colonies abroad. [208], Napoleon's personal physician, Barry O'Meara, warned London that his declining state of health was mainly caused by the harsh treatment. He could rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to his subordinates, keeping in mind where major units were expected to be at each future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays moves ahead. [144] By contrast, Napoleon dictated very harsh peace terms for Prussia, despite the ceaseless exhortations of Queen Louise. [67], In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences. William Roberts, "Napoleon, the Concordat of 1801, and Its Consequences". [179] Heartened by France's loss in Russia, Prussia joined with Austria, Sweden, Russia, Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal in a new coalition. "Reconstruction of the Lineage Y Chromosome Haplotype of Napoléon the First", "The Death of Napoleon, Cancer or Arsenic? After Trafalgar, Britain had total domination of the seas for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars. At first, as we have seen, Bonaparte was compelled to negotiate, first with the brumairiens who had helped him into power, and then with the Pope to secure religious peace. [22] Bonaparte became reserved and melancholy applying himself to reading. [171], In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war the Second Polish War—the First Polish War had been the Bar Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against Russia in 1768. Sentence Examples. Napoleon's influence on the modern world brought liberal reforms to the numerous territories that he conquered and controlled, such as the Low Countries, Switzerland, and large parts of modern Italy and Germany. Napoleon assumed command in Germany and inflicted a series of defeats on the Coalition culminating in the Battle of Dresden in August 1813. The French then focused on the Austrians for the remainder of the war, the highlight of which became the protracted struggle for Mantua. [337] He may have had further unacknowledged illegitimate offspring as well, such as Eugen Megerle von Mühlfeld by Emilie Victoria Kraus[338] and Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte (1816–1907) by Albine de Montholon. In 1800, it took him only a month to achieve the same goal. [50] He had cleared the streets with "a whiff of grapeshot", according to 19th-century historian Thomas Carlyle in The French Revolution: A History. Napoleon won a series of victories in the Six Days' Campaign, though these were not significant enough to turn the tide. He also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British, but the French were repulsed by the British Royal Navy. The couple had one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (1811–1832), known from birth as the King of Rome. Guerilla Warfare: hit and run method used in the war 5. [44], By 1795, Bonaparte had become engaged to Désirée Clary, daughter of François Clary. [88], After spending several days looking for each other, the two armies collided at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June. [303] David G. Chandler, a historian of Napoleonic warfare, wrote in 1973 that, "Nothing could be more degrading to the former [Napoleon] and more flattering to the latter [Hitler]. "[259], Denis Davydov met him personally and considered him remarkably average in appearance: "His face was slightly swarthy, with regular features. [253] Since his death, many towns, streets, ships, and even cartoon characters have been named after him. Napoleon and the Pope both found the Concordat useful. [146] On 17 October 1807, 24,000 French troops under General Junot crossed the Pyrenees with Spanish cooperation and headed towards Portugal to enforce Napoleon's orders. I respond to his love sincerely. Napoleon took a retrograde step in 1812 when he passed legislation to introduce the mesures usuelles (traditional units of measurement) for retail trade,[287] a system of measure that resembled the pre-revolutionary units but were based on the kilogram and the metre; for example, the livre metrique (metric pound) was 500 g,[288] in contrast to the value of the livre du roi (the king's pound), 489.5 g.[289] Other units of measure were rounded in a similar manner prior to the definitive introduction of the metric system across parts of Europe in the middle of the 19th century. [citation needed]. Scientific report. [89] The battle began favourably for the Austrians as their initial attack surprised the French and gradually drove them back. Tilsit signified the high-water mark of the French Empire. [193], The 5th Regiment was sent to intercept him and made contact just south of Grenoble on 7 March 1815. [192] Her name would also be his final word on his deathbed in 1821. [83] He drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul, taking up residence at the Tuileries. [199][200] The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death. [326], Napoleon could be considered one of the founders of modern Germany. [274], The movement toward national unification in Italy was similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule. It is more likely that he was 1.57 m (5 ft 2 in), the height he was measured at on St. Helena (a British island), since he would have most likely been measured with an English yardstick rather than a yardstick of the Old French Regime. In early November Napoleon got concerned about loss of control back in France after the Malet coup of 1812. People from different walks of life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 Revolution. However, during the Revolution, the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in February 1794. French Admiral Villeneuve then retreated to Cádiz instead of linking up with French naval forces at Brest for an attack on the English Channel. Plebiscite: allowed the people to reject or approve a decision 2. [81][82], Napoleon established a political system that historian Martyn Lyons called "dictatorship by plebiscite". [45] In April 1795, he was assigned to the Army of the West, which was engaged in the War in the Vendée—a civil war and royalist counter-revolution in Vendée, a region in west central France on the Atlantic Ocean. Furthermore, in a 1978 book with Ben Weider, Forshufvud noted that Napoleon's body was found to be well preserved when moved in 1840. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. [96] His broad powers were spelled out in the new constitution: Article 1. He drew together an alliance with director Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, his brother Lucien, speaker of the Council of Five Hundred Roger Ducos, director Joseph Fouché, and Talleyrand, and they overthrew the Directory by a coup d'état on 9 November 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar), closing down the Council of Five Hundred. [161] Charles received the French with 150,000 of his own men. [20] In his youth he was an outspoken Corsican nationalist and supported the state's independence from France. [34] Bonaparte and his family were compelled to flee to the French mainland in June 1793 because of the split with Paoli. [73] In early 1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee). And in a step that was really quite remarkable and was a preview of the way Napoleon wanted to reign, this step was to be ratified by a national plebiscite. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched his Grande Armée deep into Eastern Europe and annihilated the Russians in June 1807 at the Battle of Friedland. [124] However, the plan unravelled after the British victory at the Battle of Cape Finisterre in July 1805. Rather, people vote yes or no on a proposition. His father was an attorney who went on to be named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1777. [9] In his youth, his name was also spelled as Nabulione, Nabulio, Napolionne, and Napulione. [83] Worried by the democratic forces unleashed by the Revolution, but unwilling to ignore them entirely, Napoleon resorted to regular electoral consultations with the French people on his road to imperial power. The Austrians were alarmed by the French thrust that reached all the way to Leoben, about 100 km from Vienna, and finally decided to sue for peace. [166] Although fighting in Iberia continued, the War of the Fifth Coalition would be the last major conflict on the European continent for the next three years. [96] There was no secret ballot in 1802 and few people wanted to openly defy the regime. [221], Napoleon had a civil marriage with Joséphine de Beauharnais, without religious ceremony. [242] He understood military technology, but was not an innovator in that regard. ‘Dionysius can cite a plebiscite of 492 protecting a tribune from interruption at a public meeting,’ More example sentences He immediately went on the offensive, hoping to defeat the forces of Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene. Napoleon hoped to use religion to produce social stability. Resistance to French aggression soon spread throughout Spain. [218], There have been modern studies that have supported the original autopsy finding. [citation needed], He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. In 1809, under Napoleon's orders, Pope Pius VII was placed under arrest in Italy, and in 1812 the prisoner Pontiff was transferred to France, being held in the Palace of Fontainebleau. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defences, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry. [310], The large and growing historiography in French, English, Russian, Spanish and other languages has been summarized and evaluated by numerous scholars. Napoleon reorganized what had been the Holy Roman Empire, made up of more than a thousand entities,[quantify] into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of the Rhine; this helped promote the German Confederation and the unification of Germany in 1871. On 25 September, after great secrecy and feverish marching, 200,000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km (160 mi). [286], The official introduction of the metric system in September 1799 was unpopular in large sections of French society. Hoping to cement the recent alliance with Austria through a family connection, Napoleon married the Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma, daughter of Francis II, who was 18 years old at the time. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and to the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. The battle is often seen as a tactical masterpiece because of the near-perfect execution of a calibrated but dangerous plan—of the same stature as Cannae, the celebrated triumph by Hannibal some 2,000 years before. With several major commanders dead or incapacitated, the Prussian king proved incapable of effectively commanding the army, which began to quickly disintegrate.[139]. 1, p. 7. [42] Bonaparte dispatched an impassioned defence in a letter to the commissar Saliceti, and he was subsequently acquitted of any wrongdoing. Arnold, "English Language Napoleonic Historiography, 1973–1998: Thoughts and Considerations". "[266], The stock character of Napoleon is a comically short "petty tyrant" and this has become a cliché in popular culture. To withstand the stress he became domineering, eventually developing an inferiority complex. The first known record of him signing his name as Bonaparte was at the age of 27 (in 1796). Facing a potential invasion from his continental enemies, he decided to strike first and turned his army's sights from the English Channel to the Rhine. [205] He also studied English under the tutelage of Count Emmanuel de Las Cases with the main aim of being able to read English newspapers and books, as access to French newspapers and books was heavily restricted to him on Saint Helena. During his early schooling years he would be harshly bullied by classmates for his Corsican identity and control of the French language. «Invincible Napoleon – the memory of the participant in the battle of Borodino, Emperor Napoleon I in the names of the ships. [307] French scholar Jean Tulard provided an influential account of his image as a saviour. That territory almost doubled the size of the United States, adding the equivalent of 13 states to the Union. [222] This marriage was annulled by tribunals under Napoleon's control in January 1810. In 1802, Napoleon had himself elected consul for life. [74] The attack on Jaffa was particularly brutal. If he could not use his favourite envelopment strategy, he would take up the central position and attack two co-operating forces at their hinge, swing round to fight one until it fled, then turn to face the other. (referring to Roman history): from French plébiscite, from Latin plebiscitum, from plebs, pleb-‘the common people’ + scitum ‘decree’ (from sciscere ‘vote for’). Napoleon surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland on HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815. Az 5 millió választópolgárnak kb. His last words were, France, l'armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine ("France, the army, head of the army, Joséphine"). Metternich and Archduke Charles had the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as their fundamental goal, and to this end they succeeded by making Napoleon seek more modest goals in return for promises of friendship between the two powers. Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, en fera de même en novembre 1852, pour le rétablissement de l'Empire. He has been portrayed in hundreds of films and discussed in hundreds of thousands of books and articles. On 13 May, Vienna fell for the second time in four years, although the war continued since most of the Austrian army had survived the initial engagements in Southern Germany. "[224][225][226], Seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics, the Concordat of 1801 was signed on 15 July 1801 between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. Another word for plebiscite. According to these researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning; people were constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives. 10 January: Pierre Bonaparte shot the journalist Victor Noir. [49], On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention. The treaty reaffirmed and expanded earlier French gains at Campo Formio. [30], Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment. Despite these problems, the Treaties of Tilsit at last gave Napoleon a respite from war and allowed him to return to France, which he had not seen in over 300 days. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia. As in previous campaigns, his fundamental objective was to destroy one opponent before reinforcements from another could tip the balance of the war. Concentrating on two plays and two novels from the period—Victorien Sardou's Madame Sans-Gêne (1893), Maurice Barrès's Les Déracinés (1897), Edmond Rostand's L'Aiglon (1900), and André de Lorde and Gyp's Napoléonette (1913)—Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Époque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends.